What is meant by linguistic techniques ?

Linguistics is the scientific study of language and it it on focuses on language, its various aspects and it's structure. Linguistic are techniques are techniques that help us to master and perfect a language.
Language, as we know, is an important and universal ability which distinguishes humans from other animals. Language is imporant because it is the primar means of communication in a society. Communication is perhaps the most imporant function a human beings, and to be able converse efficiently and effectively is one most imporant qualities that a human being should possess.
Language is universal-under normal circumstances all children learn to speak at least one language. As children we master and learn language early and in a natural manner. Whatever one's culture or environment may be, by the time a child is three or four years old, he orse is capable of understanding verbal communication and can communicate by using complete sentences. They can order request ask questions and say 'Yes' or 'No'. A child is abie to understand about the use of proper tenses, and can distinguish between singular and plural and masculine and feminine while communicating. Thus, in childhood one is able imbibe and grasp. what we may call linguistic techniques in a natural and effortless manner.

What role does body language play in making oral presentation effective ?

Body language plays an important role in making oral presentation effective. A confident and positive language attract the listeners attention body and makes communication effective. Body language depends upon features such as, facial expressions, posture, body movements gestures, eye-contact and touch.
Facial expressions are the best guide to a person's feelings and level of confidence. They can communicate happiness, anger, surprise, embarassment, fear, indecision etc. Therefore, while making oral presentations one should also beforehand school one's face to show the appropriate and required reactions.
Posture is the physical appearance of a peron and can clearly indicate whether a person is relaxed, confident or insecure. Hunched shoulders and slouching can indicate insecurity while straight shoulders, erect and tall posture convey confidence. Proper posture enables one to make oral presentations forceful and compelling. It adds power to one's presentation.
Body movements and gestures are also an indication of one's level of confidence. Unnecessay use of hands, pacing around and jerky movements detract from the effect ofa presentation. Gestures and body movements should be carefully monitored so that they add to the presentation rather than drawing away the listener's attention. Eyecontact and touch are also significant aspects of body language. A straight Eyecontact indicates confdence. openness positive aproach. It adds to a positive body language and during oral presentations goes towards making it effective. Touch such as a firm handshake, y also gives a good greeting start to one's presentation.
Therefore, we can confidently say that a good, positive body language which gives out strong nibes goes along way towards making oal presentations efective. While speaking, one should communicate clearly, confdently in forceful tone so that the listener's attention does not stray.

An oral presentation's content and substance may be excellent but it may not be effective if it is poorly presented. A nervous, shy and insecure body language kills an oral presentation. The message is not conveyed properly and the meaning is lost.Therefore, one should practice and work towards a positive and confident body language if one has to make one's oral presentation efective.

Some important consideration to keep in mind while dealing with oral communication.

For effective oral communication one needs to keep certain considerations in mind.The essentials of oral communication are -
(i) The speaker should have clear pronunciation. Oral messages are liable to be misunderstood if the speaker does not articulate words properly or speak distinctly or speak with an accent, Therefore, it is essential that the speaker makes the correct sounds and stresses the exact syllables.
(ii) The message should be brief and concise. Verbal messages can be misunderstood if the speaker talks too much and rambles about the on concerned topic. There is danger of losing the listener's attention and the risk of being misunderstood. Therefore effective oral communication requires the speaker to be brief and concise and yet clear and complete. The speaker should neither talk too much nor talk too little.
(iii) The message or idea to be communicated should be well thought out carefully While communicating orally, it is carried and planned. easy get get away and also forget what one intends to It is essential therefore the say that speaker should prepare in advance, whatever he or she intends o communicate and verbalize his or her message in a logical, ordered sequence.
(iv) To communicate effectively, the speaker also have a good should vocabulary. The appropriate words should be used to convey the correct meaning. Inadequate or inappropriate vocabulary will give the listener incorrect and confusing meaning. A good vocabulay also holds the listener's attention and makes communication interesting. The speaker should also avoid using slang words and cliches while speaking.
(v) In oral communication, the tone of the speaker is as important as the words.There are three intonation patterns, viz. rising falling pitch and pitch, dividing pitch. It is imporant to use the correct pitch and capture the interest of the listener For example, ifa boss is scolding his subordinate but his is not tone authoritative enough the employee will not take the scolding seriously.
(vi) And lastly, for effective oral communication, the speaker should have self-confidence and should be able to speak with conviction. A speaker may have good ideas and rich vocabular, but if one lacks confidence, one will be unable to communicate effectively. Therefore, to listener convince the and put across one's ideas one needs to be full on confidence.
If one keeps the above-mentioned considerations in mind, oral If communication will become easy and effective.

What are Advantages and disadvantages of linked list ?

Advantages of linked list: Linked list have many advantages Some of them are as follows,
1) Linked list are dynamic data structure ie. they can grow or shink durng the progam execution.
2) Utilization of memory ::In linked list memory is not preallocated Memory is allocated as per requirement and it is deallocated when it is no longer needed.
3) The insertion and deletion opertions are easier and effective Linked list provides fexibility in inserting a data item at a specifed position and deletion of data item from the given position.
4) Many complex applications can be easily carried out with the help of linked list.

Disadvantages of linked list:
1) It requires more memory whenever the number of fields are more. so more memory space needed.
2) We cannot access any element directly For that we must start from  first node and traverse upto matching node.  So  it is little bit complicated and time consuming.

What is Noise ?

Undesired electical which are introduced with a message signal during the transmission,our processing of the latter. are called Noise.  Noise, is unwanted signal that corrupts desired message signal. ln general, noise may be predictable or unpredictable (random) in nature. The predictable noise can be estimated, and eliminated, by proper engineering design.  Some  examples of such noise are:power supply hum, oscillation in feedback amplifers, ignition radiation pick-up, radiation pickup generated by  electrical appliance,  and fluorescent lighting. The predictable noise,  generally is man-made and can be  reduced or eliminated.
Unpredictable noise varies randomly with time and, as such, we have no control over this noise. Identifications of the message signal at the receiver depends upon the amount of noise accompanied by the message during the process of communication.  In the absence of noise, identification of the message signal receiver is perfect.The amount of noise present in the received signal decides the minimum power level of the desired message signal at the transmitter.  The term noise is normally used to refer the unpredictable or random noise.

What is signal ?

The most fundamental function in electrical communications is the sinusoidal signal because,
1. The response of a sine wave to a linear time invariant system is also sinusoidal, i.e, if a sinusoidal signal is applied at the input of a linear system. The output waveform is also sinusoidal with the same frequency as the input, except for a constant transmission delay and gain (or attenuation)
2. The sinusoidal analysis of electrical networks is even more simple and convenient.
(The terms signal and function are interchangeably used as there is no difference between the two A function is defined as a set of rules which substitute one number for another. A "signal is a function of time and therefore, "signal" may be defined as a set of rules to assign a number f(t) for every number t, a time domain.
However, communication systems involve waveforms that are complex in nature, and it is desirable to resolve them in terms sinusoidal functions. Signal analysis is a tool for achieving this aim. signal analysis may be defined as the method of resolving a function in terms of an infinite series. The method suggested by J.B.J.Fourier for signal analysis povides the original of the theory of Fourier series and Fourier transform,

What is Generating code in Analysis and Design of algorithm ?

Generating code: After analysing the algorithm we move to next step i.e. writing the program of code.  Generating code means implement the program by using the languages such as c, c++, java, dot net, visual basic etc.

What is Analysis of algorithm ?

Analysis of algorithm: After deciding the strategy or technique to solve the given problem. we design the algorthm in detail. Analysis of an algorthm is nothing but the selection of proper and efficient algorithm which solution of given problem with respect to the time and space.The provides algorithm must be simple and easy to understand and execute. The algorithm must provide exact and corect solution in minimum time and with minimum memory use during the execution. In this step we concentrate on each part of algorithm. Here can calculate which we step part take time or extra memory space. According to the analysis we can modify that part more of instead of modifying whole algorithm.

How is Checking of an algorithm done ?

Checking of an algorithm: After deciding strategy or technique to solve problem and generate an algorithm. We first check that the algorithm is suitable for given problem i.e. in other words we check that the algorithm give desired result for the set of input. To check the algorithm with set of input we generally use techniques such as proof by contradiction, proof by direct method or direct proof, proof by contraposition, proof by counterexample, proofby mathematical induction. By using these techniques we check that algorithm provides correct solution or not. If not then make changes according to it.

What is Detailed design of an algorithm

Detailed design of an algorithm: This step is dependent on all previous steps and decides the techniques which we used to solve given problem and generates an algorithm. There are various method by using which we solve the given problems such as Brute force method, Divide and conquer method, dynamic progamming, Greedy approach, Backtracking. Optimization technique.

What Selection of proper data structure in Analysis and Design of Algorithm ?

Selection of proper data structure: This step is the step where we start to think about the progrm. The progrm is nothing but step by step instructions which is used to cary out particular task or to solve the given problem we create program only when we use some lgorthm in it. Some technique or some logic must be there with the proper data structure. when we choose proper data structure and eficient algonthm [Either exact algorithm or approximate algorithm] then result must be an efficient program with respect to time and space.

What is Abstraction ? (In object oriented technology)

Abstraction refers to the act of representing essential features without including the background details or explanations. Classes use the concept of abstraction and are defined as a list of abstract attributes such as size, weight and cost, and function to operate on these attributes. They encapsulate all the essential properties of the objects that are to be created The attributes are sometimes called data members, because they hold information. The functions that operate on these data are sometimes called methods or member functions. Since the classes use the concept of data abstraction, they are known as use Abstract Data Types (ADT).
The of deciding what parts of a real world object are essential to process modeling the solution to a paricular problem is called abstaction. Abstraction is the representation of all the essential features of an object which means its possible states and behaviours. These are 'encapsulated' into an "abstract data type" which define how all objects in class (type) of object are to be represented and how they behave.
Abstraction is mechanism that enables the designer to focus on the a essential details of a program component with little concern for lower-level detail. Abstraction is a relative concept. As we move to higher levels of abstraction we ignore more and more details,  I.e. we give a more general look of a concept or item.

What do you understand by Memory in computer science ?

Memory is an integral part of a computer system. It's primary function is to store all information required by the system. Typically, a memory unit holds programs and data. A computer designer has to pay attention to the memory unit design, since the memory system cost is a significant fraction of the cost of total system.  The system performances largely dependent on the oganization, is storage capacity, and speed of operation of the memory system.

what is the difference between direct and indirect instruction ?

Direct Address and Indirect Address In some cases, it is convenient to use the address bits of an instruction code not as an address, but as the actual operand. If the second part of an instruction code specifies an operand, then it is said that the instruction has an immediate operand.

 If the second part specifies the address of an operand, then it is said that the instruction has a direct address.There is also a third possibility called indirect address, where the bits in the second part of the instruction specify an address of a memory word in which the address of the operand is obtained. In the instruction code, one bit is used to distinguish between a direct and an  indirect address.

What is Probability Density Function ?

Probability Density Function-The range of possible values is uncountably infnite for continuous random variables. So in this case, the distribution is defined by the probability density function f (x) for the given range of random variable X.
The probability density function f(x), is a function which, when integated a and b gives the probability that the random variable will assume a value between a and b.

Key Features of a Von Neumann Machine

Key Features of a Von Neumann Machine:
》The Von Neumann machine uses stored program concept.The program and data are stored in the same unit. The computers prior to this used to store programs and data in separate memories. Entering and modifying these programs were very difficult as they were entered manually.
》Each location of the memoy can be addressed independently.
》Execution of instruction in Von Neumann machine is carried out in a sequential fashion (unless explicitly altered by the program itself from one instruction to the next.

What is Discrete veriate ?

If a random variable takes a finite set of values, it is called a discrete variate, and if it assumes an infinite number ofuncountable values, it is called a continuous variate.

What is Discrete Distribution ?

Discrete Distribution-if a real variable X be associated with the outcome of a random experiment then since the values which X takes depend on chance it is said to be a random variable or a stechastic variable or variate.

Probability Mass Function

Probability Mass Function-
In probability theory and statistics, a probability mass function (p.m.f) is a function that gives the probability that a discrete random variable is exactly equal ot some value. The probability mass function is often the primay means of defning a discrete probability distribution, and such functions exist for either scalar or multivariate random variables, given that the distribution is discrete.
                   A probability mass function differs from a probability density function (p.d.f) in that the latter is associated with continuous rather than discrete andom variables; the values ofthe latter are not probabilities as such: a p.d.f must be integrated over an interval to yield a probability.

The Von Neumann Architecture

The basic funcion penomed by a computers the executon of a progam.A program is a set of machine instructions. An instruction is a form of control code, which supplies the informaton about an opeaton and the data on which the opeation is to be performed. A typical von Neumann machine consists of five functionality independent unit
(i) Input unit
(ii) Output unit
(iii) Arithmetic and logic units
(iv) Contol unit
(v) Memory unit

Input Unit:
Computers accept coded informaton through input units, which read the data. The most common input device is the keyboard.  Whatever the key is pressed,  the corresponding letter or digit is translated into it's corresponding code and sent to the processor. There are many other kinds of input devices like
(i) Modem
(ii) mouse
(iii) joystick

Output Unit:
Output unit sends proceed result to outside world. The familiar example of such device is a printer. There are many odher kinds of output devices like:
(i) video teminal
(ii)Floppy drive
(iii) CD-drivers ra
(iv) Modem

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU):
Arithmetic and logic operation like multiplication,  addition, division are performed by ALU.  Operands  brought into the ALU. where the necesary opeation is performed.

1.1.4 Control Unit: opertions of ALU, memory and input and output unit are coordinated and controlled by the control unit. control unit sends control signal to other units.  Data tansfer between processor and memory are  controlled by te control unit through timing signal.

Memory unit:
Main memor is needed in a computer to store instructions and the data at the time of program execution. It was pointed out by Von Neumann that the same memory can be used for storing data's and instuction. The memory unit stores all information in a group of memory cells as binay digits. Each memory location has a unique address and can be addressed independently. The contents of the desired memory locations are provided to the central processing unit by refering to the address of the memory location. The amount of information, which can be transferred between CPU and memoy, depends the size of the BUS connecting the two.